The creation of the atomic bomb is widely believed to be a triumph of American science during the second World War. However, it is ironically the efforts of the refugee scientists from the Axis countries that largely enabled the United States to triumphantly produce the greatest weapon ever made.
Leo Szilard, a Hungarian scientist who fled from Nazi Germany, figures most prominently in the birth of the bomb. In 1932, spurred by Ernest Rutherford’s success in splitting the atom, Szilard realizes that a nuclear chain reaction produces an immense amount of energy. Furthermore, “In certain circumstances it might become possible to set up a nuclear chain reaction, liberate energy on an industrial scale, and construct atomic bombs. However, Szilard’s theories are largely regarded as “moonshine” and the stuff of science fiction. Despite the lack of support, Szilard forges on and files for a patent in 1934. In this patent, he names beryllium, uranium and thorium as the ideal candidates to be used in nuclear chain reactions. The latter two are currently the only elements capable of supporting these reactions. Szilard further expounds upon the commercial uses of the atom, as well as its potential for massive destruction. By 1936, Szilard issues two more patents, which contain correct plans for the assembly of the atomic bomb.
Meanwhile, across the ocean, Dr. Otto Hahn, Director of the Kaiser Willhelm Institute for Chemistry in Germany and Dr. Lise Meitner, professor extraordinary of the University of Berlin, begin experimenting with an uranium atom by directing neutrons at it. However, Meitner’s Jewish religion results in her flight from Hitler’s regime in 1938. She flees to Sweden, where she continues her laboratory work. Hahn’s experiments nevertheless continue, and ultimately produces a much lighter barium atom from uranium. Such a result is puzzling to Hahn, for it defies all known nuclear physics.
Meitner’s correspondence with Hahn does not end with her transfer, and she begins to investigate the mysterious appearance of barium. Her nephew, Otto Frisch, who left Austria before the Nazi insurrection, comes and aides her. These two recognize that the uranium had indeed been split, a phenomenon termed nuclear fission. The difference in mass between the barium and uranium is accounted for by Albert Einstein’s equation, E = mc^2, where the mass (m) lost is directly proportional to the energy (E) produced. Despite the minuscule amount of mass lost, a vast amount of energy is produced, since the speed of light (c) is so great.This connection, according to Einstein himself, is a most crucial step in the formation of the bomb. In Out of My Later Years , Einstein relates that he had theorized that atomic energy was plausible, but never believed that it could be harnessed in his lifetime. “It was discovered by Hahn in Berlin, and he himself misinterpreted what he discovered. It was Lise Meitner who provided the correct interpretation.
Frisch returns to Copenhagen and formulates the basic configuration of the atomic bomb. The fission of a uranium atom also creates additional neutrons, which in turn will produce more nuclear fission, a chain reaction. Based on Einstein’s equation, the resultant energy would be so tremendous that it would dwarf conventional explosives. Now, the worlds’ scientists begin to take notice, for now, experimental evidence is presented, which to them is more valid than the theoretical ideas of Leo Szilard. Major research on the potential of the atom ensues.
France and Britain realize the significance of such a finding, and begin to investigate the possibility of such a grand weapon. In England, where enthusiasm is muted, much of the low funded nuclear research are done by German refugee scientists. Most of the British scientists are engaged in radar work, and because these refugee scientists represent a security threat, were practically the sole group available for nuclear investigation. Two of these refugee scientists are Frisch and Rudolph Peierls. They hypothesize that instead of using an indefinite amount of a certain isotope of uranium to fission, this isotope rather be purely extracted from a larger uranium isotope. Published in the Frisch-Peierls Memorandum, this theory convinces the British government to finance a bomb project. Called the Maud Committee, and staffed by the aforementioned refugee scientists, significant advances are made. The scientists make the crucial distinction between the utilization of fast over slow neutrons, show that a nuclear weapon is indeed realistic, Frisch and Peierl’s theory is proven correct, and perhaps most importantly, is the first country to commit to building a nuclear weapon. However, Britain finds that she cannot support this expensive research, and sends the Maud Committee report to the United States government.
Meanwhile, Szilard continues his work on the possibility of a nuclear chain reaction with Enrico Fermi, an Italian Nobel Laureate and refugee from fascist Italy. He campaigns tirelessly for private funding for his experiments. By 1939, Szilard is alone in his research, for Fermi leaves. Szilard then endeavors to persuade the government that a nuclear bomb would be beneficial to develop. He remains unsuccessful, and ultimately calls upon the revered Albert Einstein to utilize his clout to bring attention to the President. Despite Einstein’s pacifist nature, he realizes the importance of developing a bomb before the Germans do. Thus, he writes a letter to President F.D. Roosevelt, urging for government interaction, to fund research, and to actively secure a site of uranium. Questioned as to how much initial research would cost, Szilard replies $6,000, which is readily supplied. This amount, however small, is a source of pride for Szilard, for it is the first funds given by the government for any type of nuclear research.
Concurrently, Szilard keeps an eye on the world stage, and realizes that any scientific advancement in nuclear physics must be kept secret. He urges world wide censorship of scientific finding of nuclear physics to prevent any of this knowledge from reaching German Nazi scientists. The United States agrees to keep a veil of silence around any matter relating to nuclear chain reactions and uranium, and the rest of the Allied states follow suit. Through this act, the race to build an atomic bomb is slowed – in part owing to Szilard’s efforts.
In spite of all of Szilard’s endeavors, the American government remains generally apathetic towards the notion of nuclear weapons. However, this apathy would soon change to active participation. The Maud Committee report arrives in the United States, and draws the attention of the government. They become eager to utilize the findings of the Committee, and after many meetings with the British, assumes the pursuit of the nuclear bomb.
The rest is history. The Manhattan Project is founded, which churns out the first atomic bomb in 1945. No small feat indeed, for its creation changes the face of warfare and ushers in a new era of nuclear technology. However, frequently lost in all of American’s glory are the efforts of those scientists who were forced out of homes simply because of the religion they were faithful to. It is truly ironic that the very people that were the target of intolerance and hatred of the Nazi’s played an integral role in ending the war that resulted from these fascist beliefs.